Travel
Events descriptions
Source
Short Description
Africa: being accurate description of the regions of AEgypt, Barbary, Lybia, and Billendulgerid, the land of Negroes, Guinee, AEthiopia, and the Abyssines: with all the adjacent islands, either in the Mediterranean, Atlantick, Southern, or Oriental Sea, belonging thereuno: with the several denominations of their coasts, harbors, creeks, rivers, lakes, cities, towns, castles, and villages : their customs, modes, and manners, languages, religions, and inexhaustible treasure / Olfert Dapper
The author describes how the population of some cities celebrates the rising of Nilus
The Maḥmil (colloquially pronounced maḥmal) is an empty litter, with a pyramidal top covered with embroidered brocade and decorated with ornaments of gold or silver and jewels, which was sent annually from Cairo, to accompany the pilgrim caravan to Mecca and back. Similar Maḥmils have been sent from other countries at various times, but that from Egypt has always held the place of honour. The procession here described was the first of three annual processions of the Maḥmil, about the middle of Rajab, afterwards held a month later, and discontinued after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517. The main ceremony, still observed, was in the month of Shawwāl, on the departure of the pilgrim caravan.
The drum-band plays before the residence of Tripoli's amīrs. According to Gibb (Vol. I, p. 89, n. 80) "A considerable proportion of the 'forty amīrs' mentioned above must, however, have been below the rank entitled to this distinction."
Qurʾānic cantillation and singing at the mosque during the nights.
The locals call this hill "Hill of Drums" and assert that they hear a sound like drums on the eve of every Friday (the day of the Islamic congregational prayer).
Drums beaten in front of the houses of the two amīrs of Mecca, every day at the hour of the sunset prayer.
Meccans' practice in regard to the Khutba and the Friday service including a signal made with the "farqaʿa", a rod with a thin twisted leather cord at the end; ritual blows on the pulpit's steps with a sword and the call to prayer.
Meccans' practices at the beginning of the months, including the call to prayer and reciting aloud poems of praise to the rulers.
Meccans' practice in the month of Rajab, which is dedicated to the Lesser Pilgrimage, the ʿumra.
During the lesser pilgrimage in the month of Rajab, the traditional invocation "labbayka", meaning "Here I am to You" is shouted by the pilgrims.
The Meccans' practices in the month of Ramadan include coordinated calls to prayer from the minarets, public recitation of the Qurʾān, the use of farqaʿa and other sounds.
Drums are sounded at the hours of prayers, morning and evening.
Theʿirāqī sharīf Abū Ghurra is reported here to have caused incidents because of his love for drums and the freer use of them made in al-ʿIrāq and other countries compared to India.
The author witnesses ritual chants and dances of the Rifāʿiyya Sufi Order including some fakir acts with fire.
The author witnesses the fire dances of dervishes from the Ḥaydariyya Sufi Order, who according to some sources consumed cannabis in their rituals. Cannabis was even called "The wine of Ḥaydar" (see Ḥaydariyya, EI-3 online).
Tustar's Shaykh Noon Prayer customs, including qur'anic readers' recitation/cantillation. The art of qur'anic recitation is called tajwīd and entails phonetic and semantic rules (see Tadjwīd, EI-2).
While travelling through Iran, the author is astonished to see people singing merry songs at a funeral.
Account of some of the sanctuaries at Shīrāz, including qurʾānic cantillation, drums, straight and coiled trumpets sounded.
A ritual calling upon the shīite "Expected Imam" al-ʿAskarī performed with musical instruments every evening. Ḥasan al-ʿAskarī (844/847-873) is the eleventh Imām of the Twelver Shīʿa. At his death, some held that he was al-Qāʾim and would return; others regarded his childless death as proof of their error in supporting his Imāmate and turned to his brother Jaʿfar (see Ḥasan al-ʿAskarī, EI-2) .
The king and his wazīr on a boat on whose sides stood two other boats carrying musicians. Abū Saʿīd Bahādur Khān (r. 716–36/1316–35), son of Öljeitü, was the last Īlkhān to hold effective rule. His reign was the longest and most stable of any of the Īlkhāns and is remembered fondly by writers who outlived it (see Īlkhānids, EI-3). According to d'Ohsson, under the early Khāns of the Īlkhānid dynasty, a royal prince was allowed kettledrums and a drum, whilst a wazīr had a kettledrum. The commander-in-chief was given drums, and an amīr of 10,000 (?) men, as well as tributary princes were allowed a [kettle] drum (see Ṭabl-Khāna, EI-2).
The author joins the Tatar King of Iraq's court while departing from Baghdad and recounts the Tatars' travel customs, which include musical performances. Tatar was a general term used to refer to Mongols. A "monster kettledrum" is mentioned, "known to the Mug̲h̲als as the kūrgā (ii, 126 tr. Gibb, ii, 342-3). The kūrgā was the personal musical emblem of the Il-Ḵh̲ān and at his death it was destroyed" (see Ṭabl-K̲h̲āna, EI-2).
Sultan of Delhi's customs when leaving for the hunt, including musical executions. Al-ʿUmarī (d. 1349) reports detailed descriptions of Muḥammad Ibn Tughluq hunting accompanied by a "small contingent" (Siddiqi et al., eds., 1971, pp. 44-45).
The author witnesses Friday audiences of the Sultan of Mogadishu (called here the Shaykh). After the congregational prayer at the mosque, the Sultan carries out a ritual towards the audience hall among performing musicians. While they play no person moves or stirs from his place, and anyone who is walking stands still, moving neither backwards nor forwards.
The Zafar's sultan has musical instruments sounded in front of his audience-hall every day.
Customs of the Akhiyya Brotherhood, including music and dancing. This kind of brotherhood is considered as part of the broader phenomenon of the "futuwwa". The sense of fraternity existed between the fityān of each town and others elsewhere by whom they were received when travelling, like the old “companions” in Europe (see Futuwwa, EI-2).
Qur'anic cantillation of the suras of Victory, Sovereignty and ʿAmma (al-Nabāʾ) for Akrīdūr's Sultan at the mosque.
Lamentations are made on the Sultan's dead son. The author praises the sobriety of the lamentations on the Sultan's dead son compared to what is done in Egypt and Syria.
The author and his fellow travellers are hosted by a local fitiyān brotherhood, whose members entertain them with Qur'anic cantillation (see Tadjwīd, EI-2), music and dances.
The author joins the ʿĀšūrāʾ's celebration at a prominent zāwiya. The ʿĀšūrāʾ is a supererogatory fasting practised in the tenth day of Muḥarram, the first month in the Islamic calendar (see ʿĀshūrāʾ, EI-2).
Muslim travellers frightened by churches' bells, rush to recite the Islamic call for prayer. Muslims of the time held the ringing of bells in the greatest abhorrence, and a Prophetic Tradition says: "The angels will not enter any house in which bells are rung." (Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim 2113).
Musical performance during the Sultan's meal, with qurʾānic cantillation and songs in Arabic, Persian and Turkish.
Qur'ānic cantillation and prayers called "tarāwīḥ" traditionally performed during Ramaḍān are performed by the author and his fellow travellers. The recitation of the Qurʾān has a prominent place in these ṣalāts. Certain groups abide behind their imāms reciting the Qurʾān once or several times in the nights of Ramaḍān (see Tarāwīḥ, EI-2).
The ritual the sultan, the amīrs and the royal house perform when consuming alcohol, accompanied by singing.
The Prince's company journeying towards Constantinople accompanied by musicians.
Reception in the camp outside Constantinople with musical instruments.
Entry into Constantinople the Great at noon with church clappers sounding.
The author is paraded through the city's markets, especially because he is an Arab.
Hospitality at a zāwiya in Bukhārā where qurʿānic cantillation and singing are performed. Zāwiya is a common name used throughout the entire Islamic world to refer to places where Sufis gather.
Description of the Barīd (Postal service) in which instruments with rattles are used. According to Silverstein (2007:163-164), Ibn Baṭṭūṭa's account of the Barīd echoes Marco Polo's description of the Yām, the Mongol postal service that was an important aspect of Mongols' legacy in the Islamic world.
The author travels with a jurist on the river Sind and describes how musicians were always present during a journey and often performed to accompany different moments.
The author witnesses the ritual called "Sati" in which widows burn themselves along with their deceased husbands. Pieces of music are performed during the ritual. This passage by Ibn Baṭṭūṭa is regarded in the literature as one of the main sources for this ritual in pre-modern times, no descriptions are known that provide firther details.
The Delhi Sultan had a bell placed at his palace's gate for the victims of oppression to call upon him at night. The anecdote refers to events that would have happened about one hundred years before the author came to Delhi.
The prince attempts a revolt against his father, but the maliks have the drums beaten to threaten him.
At the Sultan's Gates in Delhi, guests are announced by voice and playing musical instruments. The author's account presents a few discrepancies with al-ʿUmarī's. According to the latter, were there seven gates (Siddiqi et al., 1971, p.55).
The Sultan exits the palace on the occasion of the Feast riding an elephant, between pageantry and musical performances. The sultan and each amīr is told to be going out with his own his "marātib" [lit. ranks, degrees], i.e. flags, drums [ṭubūl], coiled trumpets [abwāq], straight trumpets [anfār], and zurnas [ṣurnāyāt].
The author reports the King's customs on the days of celebration for the two main Islamic feasts. Ibn Baṭṭūṭa provides no detail about the music, but according to the slightly later chronicle Taʾrīḫ-ī Fīroz Šahī, Muḥammad had been an admirer of the musician and poet Amīr Khusrow who is credited with several musical inventions, including ṣūfī chants called Qawwāl and even the musical instrument called sitar, although there is no historical evidence for this. In his poems and the Iʿjāz-i-Khusrau, Amīr Khusrow "mentioned Persian instruments like chang, rubab and barbat (also referred to as rud, tambur, and daff). He also mentioned Indian vinas, the four
stringed alavan and the kingra (Sanskrit: kinnari), duhl (Sanskrit: dhaula, Hindi: dhol)." (see Karomat, 2012).
Singing and dancing courtesan girls perform as the Sultan returns from his journeys.
The wedding ceremony for the Arab amīr Sayf al-Dīn and the Sultan's sister Fīrūz Khūnda. Male and female musicians are mentioned, as well as the practices of playing standing to honour the newlyweds and the Indian custom according to which only the director of the ceremony was supposed to give presents to the musicians.
Sultan Muḥammad Ibn Tughluq had the supporters of a rebel malik (governor) killed in front of him by elephants, while musical instruments were sounded.
The author takes with him two "accomplished singers" on the journey to keep him company, and along the way hires three others.
Short recollection of Ḥaydariyya Sufi Order practices involving music and fire and possibly consuming cannabis (see Ḥaydariyya, EI-3 online).
At the end of their practices, Yogis sound "a sort of horn". According to the information provided by the author, these Yogis would have been located in Uzbekistan in the 14th Century. This may suggest that they belonged to the Yogi Nath tradition, in which bearing a horn became a symbolic part of their identity (see Mallison, 2013). Furthermore, it is known that Ṣūfī mingled with the Naths (see Mumtaz, 2023). The presence of such a group in the area at the time would be remarkable per se, however, the passage provides too little evidence to have historical certainty.
Description of the musical and dance performances at the bazaar of the Ṭarab/Music (Ṭarab Ābād). The event takes place in what has been the sultanate's capital for a short period of time. The city, originally called Dēōgīr, was personally re-designed by Muḥammad Ibn Tughluq (Jackson, 2003) and the presence of special places dedicated to music might have been an expression of interest in music given his supposed proximity to Amīr Khosrow.
The governor's custom of walking the streets accompanied by the music of drums and trumpets. This looks like a smaller version of the Delhi Sultan's custom of always moving with a sort of parade (see Siddiqi et al., eds., 1971, pp. 43-45).
Naval attack on Goa accompanied by music.
Ifṭār celebration with the Vizir with qurʾānic cantillation and fakirs rituals with fire. Although there is no specific mention, it is possible that the Ṣūfīs mentioned in this passage were from the Qādirī Order, widespread in Maldives (see Maldives, EI-3).
An instrument for announcements in Maldives similar to a basin made of copper and beaten with an iron stick, called "dunqura" by the author. According to Gibb (following C.H.B.Reynolds), Vol. IV, n. 50: "Kurd means a water pot; dun or dum means 'smoke'; alternatively, don means 'pale or ripe-coloured' ... A brass pot would be lo kura."
About 500 women dancing in front of a statue of divinity every night. Until 1587, there was in Dondra (Tanavare) a renewed temple called Ishwaram which had several statues of divinities, then destroyed by Portuguese colonisers. Considering the intertwining of Hinduism and Buddhism in Sri Lanka's history, it is still debated if the described temple was at the time a Buddhist devale of
Uppalavanna or a "kovil" temple of Vishnu (see Pathmanathan, 2000). The dancers mentioned by Ibn Baṭṭūṭa might have been "devadasis", female artists dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of their lives (see Holt, 2004).
The Sultan of Sumatra's greeting ceremony which include singing and horse dances. The author specifies that the singers are males. In Ibn Baṭṭūṭa's perception, the "horses' dances" are something wonderful and similar to the ones he witnessed before in Delhi. This kind of ceremony at Sumatra's court is confirmed in the two main chronicles that we have: the Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai and the so-called Malay annals.
The sailors sing on the Pacific Ocean while while carrying out activities necessary for navigation.
The author and his fellow travellers are welcomed in the town by eminent figures and musicians.
The amīr's son sails in the canal of the city surrounded by other ships with musicians on them to feast. The musicians sang in Chinese, Arabic and Persian. Afterwards, the feast continues at the amīr's house with the presence of musicians. The name Amīr Qurṭay suggests Mongol origins, although he has not been identified with certainty.
Celebrations for the death of the ill-favored king in Beijing. The author's account does not correspond to the historical record of the events. Moreover, at the date of the actual king's death (1370), Ibn Baṭṭūṭa had long since returned to Morocco.
Account of the wedding of the son of Sumatra's king called al-Malik al-Ẓāhir. The identity of this king has been debated since Sulṭān Muḥammad al-Malik al-Ẓāhir is known to have died in 1326, whilst al-Malik al-Ẓāhir became an honorific title for rulers, also borne by Muḥammad's son Aḥmad (r. 1326–1360 ca.), and it was probably this sultan whom Ibn Baṭṭūṭa met (Hill 1963:15).
Account of Mali's Sultan audiences in his cupola. Ceremonial acts involving music are performed. For geographical reference of Māllī as the lost capital, see Gibb, Vol. IV, p. 955-956, n. 40. According to Tamari (1998) the description suggests a very prominent position for the Dūghā as the "chief of the griots" [kabīr al-shuʿarāʾ, see Event 67], so having a greater role than in the bambara, wolof and malinké courts.
The ceremony taking place when Sultan reaches the audience hall including music with lute-like instruments.
Sultan's audiences on the Feast days accompanied by music. Tamari (1998) reports that bows are no longer mentioned in later accounts and that at this time they might have been related to the farārīs' use of saluting the king with their bows.
Account of the way griots (dyeli) recite poetry to the Sultan: how they dress in birdlike costumes and exhort the rulers by reminding them of their predecessors. The presence of the griots at the court suggests a greater role for them than the one they had in later times and also a stronger connection with the more ancient religious practices.
The askia's messenger shouts during the prayer of the imām al-Tuwātī and the shaykh rebukes him because, according to Islamic traditions, the Prophet is always present when praised and a respectful attitude is required. The event takes place in the Jingereber (Songhay for Great Mosque), where Abū al-Qāsim al-Tuwātī (d. 1528-39) was one of the "white imāms", likely a reference to religious scholars who accomplished their studies in Morocco. Jingerber was known as the first mosque built by Mansa Musā coming back from pilgrimage and consequently associated with imperial power (Gomez, 2018).
The drums are at the centre of disputes between notables called "drum-lords" both metaphorically and concretely. Drumlords (arbāb al-ṭabl) were the few whose drums would play until they reached a threshold, after which only the Askia's drums could be heard (Gomez, 2018).
Askia Muḥammad Bonkana furbishes his court with musical instruments and male and female singers. According to Hunwick (2003), the word "qayn" mostly means "blacksmith" or "artisan," but it can also imply "slave." In the area, castes such as blacksmiths, woodworkers, weavers, potters, griots, and others are considered to be subservient even though they are not legally considered slaves.
A suspected slanderer towards the askia is punished by tying him to a donkey and carrying him around the city as an example. According to Hunwick (2003): "A punishment recommended in Islamic legal literature for persons of standing in the community is to shame them by blackening their faces, mounting them on a donkey facing backwards and parading him around town. A similar offence might be by beating, if the offender had no reputation to lose."
The askia's heart breaks at the sound of drums. This is not the only episode in the chronicle of kings who died because of a heart attack followed the sound of music (see Gomez, 2018, p. 328).
Al-Hādī, leader of a rebellion against the askia, reaches Gao with his horns and drum preceding him. A subsequent dialogue reveals that the very fact of bearing those musical instruments was perceived as an aggression (see Gomez, 2018, p. 357).
How a trumpet is used in the organisation of a plot to give the signal for enthroning an usurper.
Drums are beaten on the rooftops of Timbuktu by people assuming that Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq was going to become askia.
A prisoner is requested to raise the volume of voice in front of the askia but when he raises it too much is beaten.
The city governor attempts to assault the city but he is killed with a musket before even entering it, and his head is paraded through the city with a shouted warning.
The sound of gunfire is heard from what is perceived as a great distance.
Funeral prayer is performed on the prayer-ground [muṣallā] for a public figure in day of feast.
The sound of gunfire is heard from the army of Maḥmūd b. Zarqūn Pasha.
The sound of horses trampling on a shield terrifies the soldiers who take refuge in the lake Debo's waters.
A rigid control is imposed over Timbuktu and this includes moving the traditional time of the Prophet's praises in the month of Rabiʿ al-awwal.
In the passage it mentions that Rui di Sofa, accompanied by a large number of soldiers, meets the King of the Congo with "the noise of horns, timpani and other instruments that were part of his performance". This suggests that during the meeting between Rui di Sofa and the King of the Congo, horns, timpani and other musical instruments were used to create a festive and celebratory atmosphere.
The Shī (king/ruler) orders the drums to be beaten to gather his army.
The land is worked to the sound of drums and zurnas.
During a military expedition, the Songhanians obtain for the first time the kakaki from Agades in the region of Ayar. According to Gomez (2018), the Askia attacked this town at 860 km from Gao as part of his imperial imagination for Hausaland.
Askya (King) Muhammad Bonkana is credited for the invention of two musical instruments: a trumpet called "fotorifo" and a drum called "gabtanda". The exact form of the two instruments is unknown.
A proclamation by the new Askia made in the mosque of Djenné while travelling, translated by an interpreter and repeated loudly in the crowded place.
The Askiya holds court with his intimates while the flautists play in the room.
The kakaki is associated with royalty and it is only played at events at the palace of the king or sultan in Hausa societies.
In the context of a conspiracy, playing the drum of authority is mentioned as a sanction of actual enthronement.
The drum of authority is sounded to sanction the enthronement of the new askia.
Drums are used in battle to start the army's march, while other drums are recognized as specific to the askia.
The Balma'a moves with his concubines who are flautists from the caste of the blacksmiths.
The Askia's proclamation in the mosque of Gao through his interpreter.
A herd of cows, positioned by the Songhay army as a protective shield, flees at the sound of gunfire, causing the death of many soldiers.
The Moroccan soldiers praise God loudly with traditional Islamic phrases.
A special drum is made for the "official of adultery" in Gao to summon accused people.
The askia's drum is beaten for leaving the camp.
The askia coming to the Moroccan pasha's camp, is saluted with rifles and musical instruments.
The incitements shouted by the leader of the Moroccan army likely of Spanish origin, as the Pasha was.
When Domenico Trevisan arrived in Rosetta, he was greeted by drums and eight trumpeters.
In Domenico Trevisan's house, trumpets are constantly sounding.
Domenico Trevisan arrives at the audience with the Sultan. His eight trumpets cannot play inside the castle where he is welcomed by castanets, large cymbals and other instruments.
In the garden of the sultan Domenico Trevisan listens to nightingales.
Domenico Trevisan visits the Sultan. In the fourth room there was the castle admiral with cymbals, flutes, drums and pitchers playing.
Eight trumpeters accompanied Domenico Trevisan and his companions on their way home. They played as they reached the front door of the house.
At the last audience eight trumpets began playing in the presence of Mr. Sultan and came playing ahead of the Magnificent Ambassador Domenico Trevisan to his house.
Zaccaria Pagani describes the screams of the Moors from the bell towers of the mosques, describing what they say and what he hears on Domenico Trevisan's journey.
At the end of the journey the sound of trumpets and a drum welcomes them to Venice for Domenico Trevisan.
Giovanni Battista Perotto tells of the different languages of the people sleeping with his crew in Limassol.
Giovanni Battista Perotto attends a sung mass in Jerusalem in a new church.
Giovanni Battista Perotto goes to hear an offertory always at the New Jerusalem Church.
Giovanni Battista Perotto sees the stone on top of which the rooster sang when St. Peter denied Christ.
Giovanni Battista Perotto testifies to the presence of different sounds in the Church of the Sepulcher on the days of the Easter celebration.
Giovanni Battista Perotto visits the place where shepherds sang "Gloria in excelsis Deo" at the announcement of Christ's nativity.
Giovanni Battista Perotto tells some houses are associated with prayers Magnificat and Benedictus.
Giovanni Battista Perotto listens to the mass for the feast of St Mark.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the artillery shots at the departure of the galley.
Filippo Pigafetta describes the singing in the Coptic Mass and the rhythmic accompaniment made with sticks and some small boards.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the presence of the Talisman (from the Persian "tilisman": religious) today the muezzin who calls to prayer from the mosque (the Patriarchate).
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the songs and dances of women working in the gardens outside Alexandria.
Filippo Pigafetta describes sailors saluting by singing Rosetta.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of shouting to scare off thieves.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the feast of the flooding of the Nile.
Filippo Pigafetta recounts bagpipers, dancers, players and singers in the pit of the Nile.
Filippo Pigafetta specifies the presence of sounds and songs of the people as they go to attend the festival of the flooding of the Nile.
Filippo Pigafetta recounts the moment before the cutting of the "Khalīj", with sounds, singing, shouting, screaming, and artillery noises.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the shouts and chants of the neighborhood watchmen in the night.
Filippo Pigafetta recounts that men go shouting down the street for the collection of garbage and garbage from the house.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the sound of donkey chains.
Filippo Pigafetta describes the voice of women by performing the zaġrūṭa.
Filippo Pigafetta describes the songs and dances of Bedouin women.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of moorish and belly dance.
Filippo Pigafetta mentions the singing of birds.
Filippo Pigafetta reports information on the market and the art of negotiation.
Filippo Pigafetta describes the procession camel and its cloth covering with many bells placed in descending order.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the chants and sounds of the procession to Mecca.
Filippo Pigafetta recounts the clamoring and rumbling of the people during the procession on its way to Mecca.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the presence of poets and singers in camels following the caravan heading to Mecca.
Filippo Pigafetta tests the sound of a Pyramid of Giza burial by tapping.
Filippo Pigafetta hints at the manner of speaking.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of military exercises on horseback with shouts.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the use of the drums in war.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the verses of camels.
Filippo Pigafetta tells about the singing of the camel drivers.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the prayer and singing of the Psalm of Mary.
Filippo Pigafetta tells of the camel drivers singing around the fire in the night.
Filippo Pigafetta compares the Arabs' way of singing with that of the Spanish and other Europeans.
Filippo Pigafetta describes the singing of Arab females, the sound of castanets and dances.
Filippo Pigafetta emphasizes the sound of Archibugi's gunfire.
Filippo Pigafetta points out that the friar's camel could no longer hear.
Filippo Pigafetta mentions the sound of castanets at specific hours.
Filippo Pigafetta and the tale of sailors' songs.
Description of the church in Saint Helena Island, equipped with people and ceremonial objects for the celebration of the mass.
São Tomé island has some churches, with a bishop, some clerics and a chaplain.
Pigafetta describes the sounds produced by the warriors of the kingdom of Congo, called Mociconghi. He compares this tradition from Congo to the European use of drums and trumpets.
Pigafetta describes the dresses of the Mociconghi warriors, with bells tied to the belt.
On a burial wall, the Anonimo Veneziano sees a funeral procession painted with musical instruments, dancing and singing.
After the story about Dongola, the Anonimo Veneziano recalls some carved drawings seen in 'fabrice'.